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Te most frequently occurring tumor acarbose 50mg with mastercard blood glucose images, astrocytoma 50 mg acarbose with visa diabetes symptoms blood pressure, is slow-growing and relatively mild buy acarbose 50mg mastercard diabetes iddm definition. Te infection function discount 50 mg acarbose with amex diabetes signs headache, manifested by involuntary motor, sensory, spreads from facial veins to ophthalmic vein and fnally autonomic, sensorial or psychic phenomenon—alone or in a to the cavernous sinus. Intracranial extension may be combination—as a result of abnormal electrical discharges. Barring neonatal period, tonic and clonic components Clinical Features are the most frequently encountered convulsions. Con- Tese include high spiking fever, rigors, drowsiness, vulsions need to be diferentiated from certain movement swelling of afected eye with proptosis, chemosis, and disorders (say tremors, dystonias) and other disorders that prominent veins over lids and ophthalmoplegia involving may mimic them. Pupillary refexes may be absent and there may be visual defects Epidemiology with, at times, total blindness. Fundoscopy reveals blurred Convulsions are relatively more common in infancy and disc margins and engorged retinal veins. Orbital cellulitis with localized those with Down syndrome) is 20%, and among those manifestations is an important diferential diagnosis. Treatment High-dose parenteral antibiotic therapy, providing Etiology a good cover for S. Seizures with focal neurological deficit 535 Causes of convulsions according to the age Box 28. X-ray skull is good enough for hypocalcemia (tetany), hypo- or hypernatremia, hypomag- nesemia, kernicterus, tetanus, congenital malformations like detecting calcifed lesions. Te term denotes seizures associated with fever (but z Congenital malformations: Arteriovenous fstulae. Incidence 6 Months to 3 Years:Febrile convulsions plus previously enumerated conditions at B. It is 3 to 6 Years: Idiopathic epilepsy; febrile convulsions uncommon; one of the most common disorders of infancy and early rest as previously enumerated at B. It is based on good history and physical examination plus Special Features certain investigations depending on merits of the case. Simple febrile seizures (typical or benign febrile History should seek information concerning onset, seizures): aura, duration, pattern, postictal loss of consciousness/ z These are generally associated with fever of 38°C or drowsiness or weakness of a body part move at the time of attack, usually with rapid rise in Physical examination aims at fnding out mental temperature status, any dysmorphism, congenital malformations, z The attack occurs within 24 hours of onset of fever level of sensorium, paresis/paralysis, etc. In petit mal temperature elevation by breaking down epilepsy, for instance, 3 per second spikes and z There is no residual neurological deficit, e. It is defned as a symptom complex characterized by Treatment recurrent, paroxysms of unconsciousness or impaired consciousness, usually with a succession of tonic or clonic Treatment consists in controlling the acute attack of muscular spasms or other abnormal behavior. Epilepsy is seizures, bringing down the fever and treating the cause of not the same as epilepsy-simulating states and epilepsy high temperature which is usually a respiratory infection. It is of idiopathic epilepsy are as follows: available in India (Direct 2) as a kit enclosing a colored Grand mal: Most common; generalized tonic- bottle providing 25 mL of 2 mg/mL diazepam solution, clonic convulsions are its hallmark. Midazolam (nasal or buccal) is also efective in acute Jacksonian or focal: Seizures starting from seizure control. In infantile myoclonic needed in complex febrile seizures as follows: epilepsy, also called salaam seizures or West Intermittent prophylaxis: Diazepam, given orally syndrome, the baby (usually under 6 months) during frst 3 days of fever, is the preferred modality. Clonic phase, lasting a few minutes, is characterized z Postinfectious: Meningitis, encephalitis, cerebral abscess, sinus by alternating rhythmic contractions of muscle groups. Postictal phase is characterized by confusion, automatic z Post-toxic: Kernicterus, chronic poisoning (lead, arsenic). Absence Seizures z Congenital: Arteriovenous aneurysm, Sturge-Weber type of vascular anomaly, cerebral aplasia, porencephaly, hydrocephalus, Tese seizures, lasting less than 30 seconds, are tuberous sclerosis. Unlike tonic- International League against epilepsy clonic seizures, there is no aura (hyperventilation may Box 28. Multiple attacks in z Tonic succession (pyknolepsy or petit mal status) may occur. In 50% z Absence (petitmal) z Atonic/akinetic (minor motor) cases, absence seizures may pass on to develop tonic- z Bilateral epileptic myoclonus syndromes. Idiopathic z Benign neonatal Partial Seizures z Childhood absence Tese are characterized by motor, sensory, autonomic z Juvenile absence or mixed manifestations secondary to focal lesions in z Juvenile myoclonic z Grandmal on awakening the brain. Manifestations are motor or sensory (tingling, z West syndrome (infantile spasms) z Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (childhood epileptic encephalopathy) pain, burning, etc. Te term Jacksonian march denotes z Myoclonic-astatic seizures spreading of such seizures from one area to the other z Myoclonic absences depending on the representation in the motor area of the Localized (Partial) Seizures z Simple partial (without impaired consciousness): brain (precentral gyrus). Motor symptoms Complex partial seizures with motor manifestations Sensory symptoms are characterized by impairment of consciousness, Autonomic symptoms Mixed symptoms automatism and psychomotor or limbic system z Complex partial (with impaired consciousness): manifestations. It originating from temporal lobe, also Simple partial, but loss of consciousness called psychomotor epilepsy and temporal lobe epilepsy, With automation Syndromes are characterized by a visual or olfactory aura followed z Symptomatic by unilateral dystonia, tonic jerks of face and/or limbs, Chronic progressive epilepsy peculiar posture, lip smacking, chewing, fnger-tightness, Eplepsia partials contnua z Idiopathic complex automation acts, etc. Benign childhood focal epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes Visceral symptoms like nausea, vomiting or epigastric (Rolandic epilepsy) sensations followed by short periods of increased Epilepsy with occipital paroxysms Undetermined Syndromes muscular tonicity and, later, semipurposive movements z Neonatal seizures during a period of impaired consciousness or amnesia. Tonic phase, lasting for Syndrome of Benign Childhood Epilepsy with 30 seconds, is characterized by contraction of skeletal Centrotemporal Spikes muscles, classically in the fexors of arms and extensors of legs. A shrill cry is produced as a result of contraction of Presumed to be autosomal dominant, it accounts for 25% the laryngeal muscles which forces the air out from lungs. In others, the cause may be a serious infection Characteristics of syndrome of benign Box 28. As a result of spikes poor myelination and dendritic arborization, neonatal sei- z Simple partial seizures with motor signs usually occur during zures present as: sleep. According to a modifed defnition of status epilepticus, Infantile Myoclonic Epilepsy considered to be more practical and operational in case of children greater than 5 years of age, duration greater Also called infantile spasms, salaam seizures or West than 5 minutes of continuous seizures or two or more syndrome, the baby (usually 3–8 months) has massive discrete seizures between which incomplete recovery of attacks of fexion of the head, once or as many as 100 times consciousness should be considered status epilepticus. Te minimum syndrome, tonic-clonic, atypical absence duration of 60 minutes is no longer considered an essential Perinatal infections component of the defnition. Predictive situations include: Metabolic disorders Encephalitic etiology Localized malformations in brain Severe impairment of consciousness (at time of Intracranial bleed. A difuse encephalopathy, it is characterized by myoclonic In a large majority of the status epileptics in infants and seizures in association with generalized tonic-clonic, young children, etiology is febrile seizures or acute symptomatic. In older children it is cryptogenic or remote atypical absence or partial seizures. At times, recovery from status may be followed by Neonatal Seizures weakness of a limb or two for 12–24 hours (or infrequently In about 25% neonates with seizures, the cause is meta- a week or so). Half of this dose may be repeated employed earlier in 10–20 minutes, if necessary or Lorazepam, 0. If it fails to attain seizure-free state, it should be gradually tapered and an alternative drug introduced. Play therapy may be considered in case of failure of monotherapy in maximum doses. Increase Partial (both with and without Uerbation of primary generalized seizures in increments to 4–6 mg/kg/day. Te last is especially useful when pseudoseizures/other Carbamazepine is of special value in grand mal epilepsy, nonepileptiform disorders are on the card. Treatment Pharmacotherapy Absence Seizures To begin with, it is with high dose monotherapy. Ethosuximide is the drug of choice in view of the serious Monotherapy employing fve major drugs, namely toxicity of trimethadione.

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A transseptal approach may be necessary if there is no arterial access due to peripheral vascular disease purchase acarbose 50 mg online diabetes in dogs on the rise, amputation purchase 50mg acarbose free shipping is treating diabetes in dogs expensive, etc buy acarbose 50 mg low cost blood glucose levels chart. The transseptal approach may be useful for ventricular tachycardias rising on the septum buy acarbose 25 mg otc diabetes type 1 yahoo answers, but it is more difficult to maneuver to other left ventricular sites than when the retrograde arterial approach is used. Mapping has become routine in evaluating ventricular tachycardias in humans, especially those associated with coronary artery disease. A schema of the mapping sites of both the left and right ventricle is shown in Figure 1-19. The entire left ventricle is readily approachable with the retrograde arterial approach while the transseptal approach is particularly good for left ventricular septal tachycardias. Multiple plane fluoroscopy is mandatory to ensure accurate knowledge of the catheter position. Electroanatomic mapping with the Biosense Carto system or the recently approved Rhythmia Medical System (Boston Scientific) provides the ability to accurately localize catheter position in three dimensions without fluoroscopy. The system also provides activation and voltage analysis, making it ideal for ablation of stable rhythms. The Ensite system (Navix processing) can give activation mapping in 3-dimensions, similar to Carto and Rhythmia Medical, but requires two steps. In my experience, the Navix activation maps are similar to Carto or Rhythmia Medical, but not as accurate. Another localizing system, which can be used with multiple catheters, but which has only localizing (no activation maps), is also available (LocaLisa, Medtronic, Inc. Regardless of the navigating system one uses, we believe that the activation time should be assessed using bipolar electrograms with ≤5 mm interelectrode distance, in which the tip electrode, which is the only one guaranteed to be in contact with the ventricular myocardium, is included as one of the bipolar pair. Unipolar unfiltered recordings, which may provide important information regarding direction of activation, are less useful in mapping hearts scarred by infarction because often no rapid intrinsicoid deflection is seen due to the large size of the far field and/or cavity potential which swamp local unipolar signal because the amplitudes are restricted by the recording apparatus. However, filtering the unipolar signals will remove the far field signal, allowing one to assess local activation. The negative peak deflection of the filtered unipolar (30 to 500 Hz) signal corresponds to 7 the maximum dV/dT of the unfiltered signal, thereby identifying local activation (see Fig. Unipolar recordings allow one to assess whether the tip or second pole is responsible for the early components of the bipolar electrogram. Unipolar (unfiltered and/or filtered) recordings are particularly useful in normal hearts or in evaluating atrial and ventricular electrograms in the Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome or focal tachycardias. Recordings from proximal electrodes of a quadripolar catheter do not provide reliable information in general because the electrodes are not in contact with the muscle. They can, at best, be used as an indirect measure of the distal electrodes during entrainment mapping of ventricular tachycardia (see Chapters 11 and 14). In the left ventricle, electrograms may be recorded from Purkinje fibers, particularly along the septum. As noted above, the left ventricle may also be entered and mapped through the mitral valve in patients in whom the left atrium is catheterized across the atrial septal either via a patent foramen ovale, atrial septal defect, or transseptal puncture. As previously stated, mapping the entire left ventricle through the mitral valve is more difficult than through the retrograde arterial approach, but it can be done by an experienced catheterizer. The epicardial inferoposterior left ventricular wall can also be indirectly recorded from a catheter in the coronary sinus or the catheter in the great cardiac vein directed inferiorly along the middle cardiac vein. Recently, very small (2 to 3 French) catheters have been developed to probe the branches of the coronary sinus. Direct epicardial mapping via a percutaneous approach to the pericardium has been 17 suggested as a method to localize and ablate “epicardial” ventricular tachycardias (see Chapters 11 and 14). Catheterization of the left ventricle is also important to determine the activation patterns of the ventricle. In a normal person, two or three left ventricular breakthrough sites can be observed. These are the midseptal, the junction of the midseptum and inferior wall, and a superior wall site (see Chapter 2). Stimulation of the left ventricle is often necessary for induction of tachycardias not inducible from the right side, and determination of dispersion of refractoriness and recovery times requires left ventricular mapping and stimulation. His Bundle Electrogram The recording of a stable His bundle electrogram is best accomplished by the passage of a size 6 or size 7 French tripolar or quadripolar catheter from a femoral vein; however, almost any electrode catheter can be used. Tightly spaced octapolar or decapolar catheters are often used if activation of the triangle of Koch is being analyzed (see Chapter 8). The catheter is passed into the right atrium and across the tricuspid valve until it is clearly in the right ventricle. The catheter is then withdrawn across the tricuspid orifice with fluoroscopic monitoring. A slight clockwise torque helps to keep the electrodes in contact with the septum until a His bundle potential is recorded. It is often advantageous to attempt to record the His bundle potential between several lead pairs during this maneuver (e. Initially, a large ventricular potential can be observed, and as the catheter is withdrawn, a narrow spike representing a right bundle branch potential may appear just before (less than 30 msec before) the ventricular electrogram. When the catheter is further withdrawn, an atrial potential appears and becomes larger. Where atrial and ventricular potentials are approximately equal in size, a biphasic or triphasic deflection P. The most proximal pair of electrodes displaying the His bundle electrograms should be chosen; it cannot be overemphasized that a large atrial electrogram should accompany the recording of the proximal His bundle potential. The initial portion of the His bundle originates in the membranous atrial septum, and recordings that do not display a prominent atrial electrogram may be recording more distal His bundle or bundle branch potentials and therefore miss important intra-His bundle disease. The use of a standard Bard Electrophysiology Josephson quadripolar multipolar catheter for His bundle recording allows recording of three simultaneous bipolar pairs that can help evaluate intra-His conduction (Fig. Distal and proximal His potentials can often be recorded and intra-His conduction evaluated. A 2-mm decapolar catheter can occasionally be used to record from the proximal His bundle to the right bundle branch. If after several attempts a His bundle electrogram cannot be obtained, the catheter should be withdrawn and reshaped, or it should be exchanged for a catheter with a deflectable tip. Once the catheter is in place, stable recording can usually be obtained for several hours with no further manipulation. Occasionally, continued torque on the catheter shaft is required to obtain a stable recording. This can be accomplished by making a loop in the catheter shaft remaining outside the body, torquing it as necessary, and placing one or two towels on it to hold it; it is rarely necessary for the operator to hold the catheter continuously during the procedure. When the approach just described is used, satisfactory tracing can be obtained in less than 10 minutes in more than 95% of patients. Both the upper extremity approach and the retrograde arterial approach can be used for recording the His bundle electrogram when the femoral vein cannot be used. The quadripolar catheter allows for recording three bipolar signals (distal, mid, and proximal) from which His bundle electrograms can be recorded. The natural course of a catheter passed from the upper extremity generally does not permit the recording of a His P.

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Differences in effects of electrical therapy type for ventricular arrhythmias on mortality in implantable cardioverter-defibrillator patients acarbose 25 mg cheap metabolic diseases kidney. Evidence of multiuse reentry with spontaneous and induced block in portions of reentrant path complex quality 50 mg acarbose diabetes high blood pressure. Termination of sustained ventricular tachycardia by ultrarapid subthreshold stimulation in humans discount acarbose 50 mg on-line diabetes mellitus life expectancy. Termination of ventricular tachycardia with ventricular stimulation: salutary effect of increased current strength order acarbose 25mg diabetes mellitus with hyperglycemia icd 9 code. Effect of procainamide, propranolol and verapamil on mechanism of tachycardia in patients with chronic recurrent ventricular tachycardia. Comparison of individual and combined effects of procainamide and amiodarone in patients with sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Electrode-catheter arrhythmia induction in the selection and assessment of antiarrhythmic drug therapy for recurrent ventricular tachycardia. Electrophysiologic approach to therapy of recurrent sustained ventricular tachycardia. Intracardiac electrophysiologic studies as a method for the optimization of drug therapy in chronic ventricular arrhythmia. Serial electrophysiologic- pharmacologic testing for control of recurrent tachyarrhythmias. Procainamide-induced slowing of ventricular tachycardia with insights from analysis of resetting response patterns. Electropharmacology of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia: effects of class I antiarrhythmic agents, verapamil and propranolol. Role of catheter mapping in the preoperative evaluation of ventricular tachycardia. Activation mapping in patients with coronary artery disease with multiple ventricular tachycardia configurations: occurrence and therapeutic implications of widely separate apparent sites of origin. Epicardial and endocardial activation during sustained ventricular tachycardia in man. Comparison of endocardial catheter mapping with intraoperative mapping of ventricular tachycardia. Endocardial mapping by simultaneous recording of endocardial electrograms during cardiac surgery for ventricular aneurysm. Activation sequence of ventricular tachycardia: endocardial and epicardial mapping studies in the human ventricle. Endocardial mapping of ventricular tachycardia in the intact human ventricle: evidence for reentrant mechanisms. Resetting of ventricular tachycardia: implications for localizing the area of slow conduction. Identification and catheter ablation of a zone of slow conduction in the reentrant circuit of ventricular tachycardia in humans. Electrogram patterns predicting successful catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia. Identification of reentry circuit sites during catheter mapping and radiofrequency ablation of ventricular tachycardia late after myocardial infarction. Exploring postinfarction reentrant ventricular tachycardia with entrainment mapping. Nonsurgical transthoracic epicardial catheter ablation to treat recurrent ventricular tachycardia occurring late after myocardial infarction. Epicardial approach to the ablation of ventricular tachycardia in coronary artery disease: an alternative or ancillary approach. Reconstruction of endocardial potentials and activation sequences from intracavitary probe measurements. Simultaneous endocardial mapping in the human left ventricle using a noncontact catheter: comparison of contact and reconstructed electrograms during sinus rhythm. Characteristics of wavefront propagation in reentrant circuits causing human ventricular tachycardia. Fractionated endocardial electrograms are associated with slow conduction in humans: evidence from pace-mapping. The origin of premature ventricular complexes–role and limitations of the 12-lead electrocardiogram. Electrocardiographic localization of the site of origin of ventricular tachycardia in patients with prior myocardial infarction. Elimination of local abnormal ventricular activities: a new end point for substrate modification in patients with scar-related ventricular tachycardia. The substrate and ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Catheter ablation of ventricular epicardial tissue: a comparison of standard and cooled-tip radiofrequency energy. Reversal of reentry and acceleration due to double-wave reentry: two mechanisms for failure to terminate tachycardias by rapid pacing. Clinical value of the postpacing interval for mapping of ventricular tachycardia in patients with prior myocardial infarction. Endo-epicardial homogenization of the scar versus limited substrate ablation for the treatment of electrical storms in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. Localizing the critical isthmus of postinfarct ventricular tachycardia: the value of pace-mapping during sinus rhythm. Electrophysiologic testing in the evaluation of patients with syncope of undetermined origin. Role of cardiac electrophysiologic studies in patients with unexplained recurrent syncope. Long-term follow-up of patients with recurrent unexplained syncope evaluated by electrophysiologic testing. Significance of inducible tachycardia in patients with syncope of unknown origin: a long-term follow-up. Electrophysiologic evaluation and follow-up characteristics of patients with recurrent unexplained syncope and presyncope. Electrophysiologic testing in patients with unexplained syncope: clinical and noninvasive predictors of outcome. High incidence of appropriate implantable cardioverter- defibrillator therapy in patients with syncope of unknown etiology and inducible ventricular arrhythmias. Outcome of patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and unexplained syncope treated with an implantable defibrillator. Chapter 12 Evaluation of Antiarrhythmic Agents The application of recording and stimulation techniques has made it possible to evaluate the electrophysiologic effects and preferential sites of action of the entire spectrum of antiarrhythmic agents. Knowledge of major sites and characteristics of drug action may provide a database for the selection of safe and effective agents for acute and chronic therapy. The reproducible initiation and termination of paroxysmal supraventricular and ventricular tachyarrhythmias allow the electrophysiologist to develop pharmacologic means to predict successful drug therapy.

A study of 250 patients admitted to a hospital during the past year revealed that cheap acarbose 50 mg on-line blood glucose number chart, on the average purchase acarbose 25 mg on-line diabetes prevention thru exercise, the patients lived 15 miles from the hospital order 50mg acarbose free shipping blood sugar normal. For Situation A describe how you would use a stratified random sample to collect the data buy acarbose 25mg with mastercard diabetic diet bread. For Situation B describe how you would use systematic sampling of patient records to collect the data. Data generally consist of an extensive number of measure- ments or observations that are too numerous or complicated to be understood through simple observation. Therefore, this chapter introduces several tech- niques including the construction of tables, graphical displays, and basic statistical computations that provide ways to condense and organize infor- mation into a set of descriptive measures and visual devices that enhance the understanding of complex data. The objective of the person applying the tools of statistics to these numbers is to determine the nature of this information. When measurements of a random variable are taken on the entities of a population or sample, the resulting values are made available to the researcher or statistician as a mass of unordered data. Measurements that have not been organized, summarized, or otherwise manipulated are called raw data. Unless the number of observations is extremely small, it will be unlikely that these raw data will impart much information until they have been put into some kind of order. In this chapter we learn several techniques for organizing and summarizing data so that we may more easily determine what information they contain. The ultimate in summarization of data is the calculation of a single number that in some way conveys important information about the data from which it was calculated. Such single numbers that are used to describe data are called descriptive measures. After studying this chapter you will be able to compute several descriptive measures for both populations and samples of data. The purpose of this chapter is to equip you with skills that will enable you to manipulate the information—in the form of numbers—that you encounter as a health sciences professional. The better able you are to manipulate such information, the better understanding you will have of the environment and forces that generate the information. An ordered array is a listing of the values of a collection (either population or sample) in order of magnitude from the smallest value to the largest value. If the number of measurements to be ordered is of any appreciable size, the use of a computer to prepare the ordered array is highly desirable. An ordered array enables one to determine quickly the value of the smallest measurement, the value of the largest measurement, and other facts about the arrayed data that might be needed in a hurry. We illustrate the construction of an ordered array with the data discussed in Example 1. As can be seen, this unordered table requires considerable searching for us to ascertain such elementary information as the age of the youngest and oldest subjects. We also readily note that about one-third of the subjects are 50 years of age or younger. If the data are to be analyzed by a computer, it may be undesirable to prepare an ordered array, unless one is needed for reference purposes or for some other use. A computer does not need for its user to first construct an ordered array before entering data for the construction of frequency distributions and the performance of other analyses. However, almost all computer statistical packages and spreadsheet programs contain a routine for sorting data in either an ascending or descending order. Before the days of computers one of the main objectives in grouping large data sets was to facilitate the calculation of various descriptive measures such as percentages and averages. Because computers can perform these calculations on large data sets without first grouping the data, the main purpose in grouping data now is summarization. One must bear in mind that data contain information and that summarization is a way of making it easier to determine the nature of this information. One must also be aware that reducing a large quantity of information in order to summarize the data succinctly carries with it the potential to inadvertently lose some amount of specificity with regard to the underlying data set. Therefore, it is important to group the data sufficiently such that the vast amounts of information are reduced into understandable summaries. At the same time data should be summarized to the extent that useful intricacies in the data are not readily obvious. To group a set of observations we select a set of contiguous, nonoverlapping intervals such that each value in the set of observations can be placed in one, and only one, of the intervals. One of the first considerations when data are to be grouped is how many intervals to include. On the other hand, if too many intervals are used, the objective of summarization will not be met. The best guide to this, as well as to other decisions to be made in grouping data, is your knowledge of the data. It may be that class intervals have been determined by precedent, as in the case of annual tabulations, when the class intervals of previous years are maintained for comparative purposes. A commonly followed rule of thumb states that there should be no fewer than five intervals and no more than 15. If there are fewer than five intervals, the data have been summarized too much and the information they contain has been lost. Those who need more specific guidance in the matter of deciding how many class intervals to employ may use a formula given by Sturges (1). This formula gives k ¼ 1 þ 3:322 log10 n , where k stands for the number of class intervals and n is the number of values in the data set under consideration. The answer obtained by applying Sturges’s rule should not be regarded as final, but should be considered as a guide only. The number of class intervals specified by the rule should be increased or decreased for convenience and clear presentation. Suppose, for example, that we have a sample of 275 observations that we want to group. In practice, other considerations might cause us to use eight or fewer or perhaps 10 or more class intervals. Class intervals generally should be of the same width, although this is sometimes impossible to accomplish. This width may be determined by dividing the range by k, the number of class intervals. Again, we may exercise our good judgment and select a width (usually close to one given by Equation 2. There are other rules of thumb that are helpful in setting up useful class intervals. When the nature of the data makes them appropriate, class interval widths of 5 units, 10 units, and widths that are multiples of 10 tend to make the summarization more comprehensible.

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