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Several joints are amena- • avascular necrosis of the hip ble to imaging on ultrasound buy generic requip 0.5 mg line treatment 001, including the shoulder and • septic arthritis discount 2 mg requip mastercard treatment in statistics. On ultrasound purchase requip 0.25mg fast delivery medicine head, a normal tendon or ligament is a bright/ thin purchase 2 mg requip with amex treatment 001 - b, black/anechoic line which is less than 2 mm thick. The echogenic linear band of varying thickness depending on bursa flls with fuid when irritated or infected. The possible fndings one should look for are: Arthritis changes in echogenicity, increase in size of tendon, fuid in the joint and irregularity of bone surface. Signs indicating the presence of arthritis When interruptions in ligament or tendon fbres exist, they are visualized as anechoic/black areas within the Joint space narrowing is due to destruction of articular carti- tendon. It occurs in practically all forms of joint disease except while full thickness tears demonstrate tendon gaps. Enlarged, hypoechoic tendons with normal echotex- arthritis accompanied by a joint effusion and whenever ture may be due to low grade injuries, intratendinous periarticular infammation is present. In a normal joint, the bursa is a feature of infammatory, and particularly infective, arthri- Joints 349 Box 12. A characteristic increase in the density of subchondral bone is seen in avascular necrosis (see Figs Fig. A typical Several conditions lead to characteristic alterations in the erosion is arrowed. Discrete soft tissue swelling around the joints can be seen in gout due to gouty tophi. Diagnosis of arthritis Osteoporosis of the bones adjacent to joints occurs in When considering an arthritis it is important to have the many painful conditions. Underuse of the bones seems to following information: be an important mechanism, but is not the only factor. Certain diseases typically Osteoporosis is particularly severe in rheumatoid and involve several joints, e. Many arthropathies have a pre- dilection for certain joints and spare others: Signs that point to the cause of arthritis • Rheumatoid arthritis virtually always involves the hands An articular erosion is an area of destruction of the articular and feet, principally the metacarpo- and metatarsophalan- cortex and the adjacent trabecular bone (Fig. Psoriatic arthritis usually affects the terminal Erosions are easily recognized when seen in profle, but interphalangeal joints. In the feet, it is almost always the frst metatarsophalangeal joint that is affected. In the large joints, osteoarthritis is common in the hips and knees but relatively rare in the ankle, shoul- ders and elbows unless there is some underlying deformity or disease. Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis is a polyarthritis caused by infamma- tory overgrowth of synovium known as pannus. This osteoporosis is believed to be due to a combination of disuse and synovial hyperaemia. Destruction of the articular cartilage by pannus leads to joint space narrowing and to small bony erosions which occur, initially, at the joint margins (Fig. These ero- sions are often seen frst around the metatarso- or metacar- pophalangeal joints, proximal interphalangeal joints and on the styloid process of the ulna. With very severe destruction, the con- dition is referred to as arthritis mutilans (Fig. In such cases, osteoarthritis may be superimposed on the rheumatoid arthritis and may dominate the picture. Atlantoaxial subluxation may only be demonstrable in a flm taken with the neck fexed. Even though it is frequently asymptomatic, there is always the possibility of neurological symptoms from compression of the spinal cord by the odontoid process and it is important Fig. Small erosions are present in the articular cortex (arrows) and there is soft tissue swelling around the proximal interphalangeal joints. Uniform loss of joint space is There is extensive destruction of the articular cortex of the seen in this hip joint. Sclerosis is also present due to associated metacarpophalangeal joints with ulnar deviation of the fngers. Other erosive arthropathies Role of radiology in rheumatoid arthritis A number of other arthropathies, such as juvenile rheuma- Radiographs assist in the diagnosis of doubtful cases. A which include psoriasis and Reiter’s disease, produce artic- widespread erosive arthropathy is almost diagnostic of ular erosions. There are extensive erosive changes affecting the interphalangeal joints but sparing the metacarpophalangeal joints. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (Still’s disease, juvenile chronic polyarthritis) shows many features similar to rheu- matoid arthritis but erosions are less prominent. Hyperaemia from joint infammation causes epiphyseal enlargement and premature fusion. In psoriasis, there is an erosive arthropathy with predomi- nant involvement of the terminal interphalangeal joints (Fig. Gout In gout, the deposition of urate crystals in the joint and in the adjacent bone gives rise to an arthritis that most com- monly affects the metatarsophalangeal joint of the big toe. At a later stage, the atlas and the odontoid peg (arrow) is increased from the erosions occur that, unlike rheumatoid arthritis, may be at normal value (2 mm) to 8 mm. A good example is seen around the proximal interphalangeal joint of the index fnger. These swellings can be large and tis clinically simulating gout, hence the alternative name occasionally show calcifcation. It is due chondrocalcinosis, which is a descriptive term for calcifca- to degenerative changes resulting from wear and tear of the 354 Chapter 12 Table 12. Normally, the cysts are easily distinguished from an erosion as they are beneath the intact cortex and have a sclerotic rim but, occasionally, if there is crumbling of the joint sur- faces, the differentiation becomes diffcult. It is important not to call the fabella, a sesamoid bone menisci in the knee (arrows). The hip and knee are frequently involved Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis are the two types but, despite being a weight-bearing joint, the ankle is infre- of arthritis most commonly encountered. The wrist, joints of the hand and the meta- distinguishing features, which are listed in Table 12. Haemophilia and bleeding disorders In osteoarthritis, a number of features can usually be seen (Fig. The loss of joint space is maximal rhages into the joints result in soft tissue swelling, erosions in the weight-bearing portion of the joint; for example, in and cysts in the subchondral bone (Fig. The epiphy- the hip it is often maximal in the superior part of the joint, ses may enlarge and fuse prematurely. Even when the joint space is very Joint infections narrow it is usually possible to trace out the articular cortex. Note the soft tissue swelling around the joint and the deep intercondylar notch – a characteristic feature of haemophilia. The features to look for are joint space narrowing and ero- Pyogenic arthritis sions, which may lead to extensive destruction of the artic- In pyogenic arthritis, which is usually due to Staphylococcus ular cortex. A very important sign is a striking osteoporosis, aureus, there is rapid destruction of the articular cartilage which may be seen before any destructive changes are followed by destruction of the subchondral bone (Fig. At a late stage, there may be gross disorganization of the A pyogenic arthritis may occasionally be due to spread joint with calcifed debris near the joint.
It is important to use very gentle technique during cardiac catheterization in the newborn heart safe requip 1 mg medicine under tongue, as the cardiac walls are very thin—especially in the atria and left ventricular apex—and the chambers are small requip 1mg for sale treatment brown recluse spider bite. Since small sheaths and catheters (3 and 4 Fr) can be placed in the femoral vessels effective requip 0.5mg symptoms zollinger ellison syndrome, the benefits of improved catheter manipulation make a femoral approach preferable in most cases generic requip 1mg fast delivery medicine side effects, even when the umbilical vessels are available. Hepatic Approach In the mid to late 1990s, transhepatic venous access was first described as an alternative to traditional venous access sites in limited clinical situations (10,11). When femoral, jugular, or subclavian venous access to the right atrium is not possible, a hemostatic sheath can be placed within a hepatic vein. After the appropriate sterile preparation and local anesthesia (including infiltration of into the hepatic parenchyma), the skin is punctured along the mid to anterior axillary line at the subcostal margin using a long 21- or 22-gauge needle with or without an obturator. The needle is directed posteriorly, superiorly, and medially, toward the left shoulder. Historically, the needle is advanced under fluoroscopic guidance, but some have advocated for ultrasound-guided access (12). When the tip of the needle is approximately 1 cm from midline, the obturator is removed. Blood return with or without gentle aspiration suggests that the needle is in the vascular space. Positioning is then confirmed with a contrast injection; if contrast flows to the heart, the needle is in an appropriate hepatic vein, whereas if contrast flows into the liver parenchyma, the needle is in a portal vein and should be repositioned. With the needle removed, a stiff introducer is advanced over the wire, which is then exchanged for a larger 0. The introducer is then exchanged for the necessary hemostatic sheath with the tip of the sheath positioned in the low right atrium. Directing catheters into the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries frequently requires creative use of preshaped catheters and deflecting wires. Hepatic venous access also carries the risk of some unique complications, including intraperitoneal bleeding, hemobilia, gall bladder perforation, portal vein thrombosis, and liver abscess or peritonitis. Closure of the hepatic tract following sheath removal may depend on the need for ongoing anticoagulation, size of sheath used, and hemodynamic status; often hemostasis may be obtained with pressure (13). Catheters and Wires Functioning competently in the congenital cardiac catheterization lab requires an understanding of the various equipment and tools available to the cardiologist. Specifically, the cardiologist needs a practical familiarity with the different catheters and wires available in the cath lab. For the most part, catheters are hollow, allowing transmission of pressure measurements, sampling of blood, and infusion of medications or contrast. For the most part, end-hole catheters are used for hemodynamic measurements, blood gas sampling, and contrast injection into smaller vessels by hand. Right heart catheterization is typically performed using soft, balloon-tipped catheters. An end-hole balloon wedge catheter is used for hemodynamic pressure measurement and blood gas sampling. With the balloon-tipped end-hole catheter positioned in a distal branch pulmonary artery, gentle inflation of the balloon allows measurement of pulmonary artery wedge pressure. Angiography of the right heart is usually performed using a balloon-tipped angiographic catheter, which has side holes proximal to the balloon. The Berman catheter is soft and balloon tipped; it can be flow directed but it is more difficult to effectively torque. These are thin-walled catheters that have both end and side holes, designed to deliver a large volume of contrast quickly for ventriculography. They may be angled and may have radiopaque markers to facilitate making measurements. Note the smaller diameter curve on the right catheter, which is better for neonates and infants. This is an end-hole, balloon-tipped catheter that is not used for angiographic purposes; however, it may be used for hand injections (with or without balloon occlusion). There are many preformed end-hole catheters designed for selective entry of noncoronary vessels. These catheters are designed for selective hand injection of normally originating right and left coronary arteries. Left heart catheterization is typically performed using smaller caliber, thin-walled, but more rigid, catheter. With the wire removed, the catheter end is curled, allowing it to be advanced and withdrawn in the aorta without engaging smaller branch arteries. However, in order to advance the pigtail catheter into the left ventricle, a soft, typically tight-J–tipped wire is used to cross the aortic valve to prevent leaflet damage. Pressure measurements, blood sampling, and angiography can all be performed using the pigtail catheter. Most wires have a soft distal end, which comes in various contours, including straight, J-tipped, and angled. Wires advanced through hollow catheters are used to probe and enter vessels that may be otherwise difficult to access with the catheter alone, such as stenotic branch pulmonary arteries or tortuous collateral vessels. Stiff, extra-long wires are valuable for maintaining position while exchanging one catheter for another. Many other catheters and wires of various sizes, lengths, and contours are available for use depending upon the specific clinical scenario, but an expansive discussion is beyond the scope of this chapter. Catheter Manipulation A detailed discussion of catheter manipulation is beyond the scope of this chapter, but several points deserve mention. Perforation can occur easily, especially in the atrial appendages, right ventricular outflow tract, left ventricular apex, and aortic valve cusps. The risk of perforation can be decreased by gentle catheter manipulation, using small movements, the use of balloon catheters and floppy-tipped wires, and a thorough understanding of the cardiac anatomy and the desired catheter route and destination. The importance of reviewing all previous imaging studies before the catheterization cannot be overemphasized. Large catheter loops in the atrium or right ventricular outflow tract can cause hemodynamic instability owing to reflex bradycardia or tricuspid valve insufficiency; therefore, one needs to pay attention to all parts of the catheter, not just the tip. The calculations made using data obtained during catheterization assume that blood samples and pressure measurements were obtained at a steady physiologic state. Changes in oxygenation, ventilation, heart rate, and blood pressure will directly affect these calculations and may produce inaccurate data that, in turn, can result in suboptimal patient management. Because a true “steady state” is rarely encountered in the cath lab, it is important to recognize any changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen saturation and how these changes will affect the accuracy of the data. Initial interpretation of all data obtained should be performed before leaving the cath lab to be certain that the information deemed necessary has been obtained. Although separated for purposes of discussion, the collection of hemodynamic/pressure data and oxygen sampling occurs simultaneously during the initial phases of the catheterization procedure.
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