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This finding cheap 500mg antabuse amex 68w medications, known as the self-reference effect order 250 mg antabuse amex 4 medications at target, is powerful evidence that the self-concept helps us organize and remember information buy 250mg antabuse overnight delivery symptoms 1 week after conception. The next time you are studying for an exam purchase antabuse 250 mg on line spa hair treatment, you might try relating the material to your own experiences. The self-reference effect suggests [4] that doing so will help you better remember the information (Symons & Johnson, 1997). Using the Contributions of Hermann Ebbinghaus to Improve Your Memory Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) was a pioneer of the study of memory. In this section we consider three of his most important findings, each of which can help you improve your memory. Ebbinghaus plotted how many of the syllables he could remember against the time that had elapsed since he had studied them. He discovered an important principle of memory: Memory decays rapidly at first, but the amount of decay levels off with time (Figure 8. Although Ebbinghaus looked at forgetting after days had [5] elapsed, the same effect occurs on longer and shorter time scales. Bahrick (1984) found that students who took a Spanish language course forgot about one half of the vocabulary that they had learned within three years, but that after that time their memory remained pretty much constant. Ebbinghaus also discovered another important principle of learning, known as the spacing effect. The spacing effect refers to the fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same time. This means that even if you have only a limited amount of time to study, you‘ll learn more if you study continually throughout the semester (a little bit every day is best) than if you wait to cram at the last minute before your exam (Figure 8. Another good strategy is to study and then wait as long as you can before you forget the material. Then review the information and again wait as long as you can before you forget it. The spacing effect is usually considered in terms of the difference between distributed practice (practice that is spread out over time) and massed practice (practice that comes in one block), with the former approach producing better memory. Leslie, Lee Ann, and Nora all studied for four hours total, but the students who spread out their learning into smaller study sessions did better on the exam. Ebbinghaus also considered the role of overlearning—that is, continuing to practice and study even when we think that we have mastered the material. Ebbinghaus and other researchers have [6] found that overlearning helps encoding (Driskell, Willis, & Copper, 1992). Students frequently think that they have already mastered the material but then discover when they get to the exam that they have not. The point is clear: Try to keep studying and reviewing, even if you think you already know all the material. Retrieval Even when information has been adequately encoded and stored, it does not do us any good if we cannot retrieve it. Retrieval refers to the process of reactivating information that has been stored Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. You can get an idea of the difficulty posed by retrieval by simply reading each of the words (but not the categories) in the sidebar below to someone. Tell the person that after you have read all the words, you will ask her to recall the words. After you read the list to your friend, give her enough time to write down all the words that she can recall. Make sure that she cannot recall any more and then, for the words that were not listed, prompt your friend with some of the category names: “Do you remember any words that were furniture? Retrieval Demonstration Try this test of the ability to retrieve information with a classmate. Apple (Fruit) Dresser (Furniture) Sander (Tool) Pomegranate (Fruit) Sunflower (Flower) Tangerine (Fruit) Chair (Furniture) Peony (Flower) Banana (Fruit) Sofa (Furniture) Bench (Furniture) Strawberry (Fruit) Television stand (Furniture) Magnolia (Flower) Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Read your friend the names of the 10 states listed in the sidebar below, and ask him to name the capital city of each state. Now, for the capital cities that your friend can‘t name, give him just the first letter of the capital city. You‘ll probably find that having the first letters of the cities helps with retrieval. The tip-of-the-tongue experience is a very good example of the inability to retrieve information that is actually stored in memory. States and Capital Cities Try this demonstration of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon with a classmate. Georgia (Atlanta) Maryland (Annapolis) California (Sacramento) Louisiana (Baton Rouge) Florida (Tallahassee) Colorado (Denver) New Jersey (Trenton) Arizona (Phoenix) Nebraska (Lincoln) Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Context-dependent learning refers to an increase in retrieval when the external situation in which information is learned matches the [7] situation in which it is remembered. Godden and Baddeley (1975) conducted a study to test this idea using scuba divers. They asked the divers to learn a list of words either when they were on land or when they were underwater. Then they tested the divers on their memory, either in the same or the opposite situation. For instance, you might want to try to study for an exam in a situation that is similar to the one in which you are going to take the exam. Whereas context-dependent learning refers to a match in the external situation between learning and remembering, state-dependent learning refers to superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding. Research has found, for instance, that animals that learn a maze while under the influence of one drug tend to remember their learning better when they are tested under the influence of the same drug than [8] when they are tested without the drug (Jackson, Koek, & Colpaert, 1992). And research with humans finds that bilinguals remember better when tested in the same language in which they [9] learned the material (Marian & Kaushanskaya, 2007). People who learn information when they are in a bad (rather than a good) mood find it easier to recall these memories when they are tested while they are in a bad mood, and vice versa. It is easier to recall unpleasant memories than pleasant ones when we‘re sad, and easier to recall pleasant memories than unpleasant ones when we‘re happy (Bower, 1981; Eich, [10] 2008). Variations in the ability to retrieve information are also seen in the serial position curve. People are able to retrieve more words that were presented to them at the beginning and the end of the list than they are words that were presented in the middle of the list. This pattern, known as the serial position curve, is caused by two retrieval phenomenon: The primacy effect refers to a tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list. The recency effect refers to the tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list. There are a number of explanations for primacy and recency effects, but one of them is in terms of the effects of rehearsal on short-term and long-term memory (Baddeley, Eysenck, & [11] Anderson, 2009). Because we can keep the last words that we learned in the presented list in short-term memory by rehearsing them before the memory test begins, they are relatively easily remembered. So the recency effect can be explained in terms of maintenance rehearsal in short- term memory. And the primacy effect may also be due to rehearsal—when we hear the first word in the list we start to rehearse it, making it more likely that it will be moved from short-term to long-term memory.

The common denominator among tions 500 mg antabuse mastercard medicine used for anxiety, who are at a disadvantage in tests that place a these interventions buy generic antabuse 500 mg symptoms gluten intolerance, however purchase antabuse 250 mg on line treatment varicose veins, is their brief duration and strong emphasis on verbal and semantic ability buy discount antabuse 250 mg on line medications zofran. The Eby their focus on improving acute psychological distur- Gifted Behavior Index reflects the growing view of cre- bances rather than curing long-standing mental disor- ativity as specific to different domains. Some common examples of crisis intervention in- six talent fields: verbal, social/leadership, visual/spatial, clude suicide prevention telephone hotlines, hospital- math/science problem-solving, mechanical/technical, based crisis intervention, and community-based disaster and musical. Two psy- chiatrists in particular heavily influenced our approach to Creativity tests have been found reliable in the sense crisis intervention with their crisis theory. Erich Linde- that one person’s scores tend to remain similar across a mann and Gerald Caplan believed that, when people are variety of tests. However, their validity has been ques- in a state of crisis, they are anxious, open to help, and tioned in terms of their ability to predict the true creative motivated to change. In one study, there was programs is therefore the belief that providing support little correlation between the scores of both elementary and guidance to people in crisis will avert prolonged and secondary students on divergent thinking tests and mental health problems. Creativity tests have Crisis or suicide hotlines offer immediate support to also been criticized for unclear instructions, lack of suit- individuals in acute distress. Further, some centers rope indicates that this type of counseling often has no will arrange referrals to clinicians. If a volunteer feels a It is possible that having people focus on the upsetting caller is at immediate risk, however, confidentiality will event emphasizes the victimization that has already be broken and a mental health worker will be called taken place, rather than people’s innate abilities to over- upon to intervene. Some researchers fear that the people who call that a particular psychological intervention may be intu- may not be those at highest risk. A further problem is that there appears to be significant discrepancies in the Further Reading training of telephone operators at these hotlines. When treatment is administered, however, it is usually in Critical period the form of psychotropic drugs with follow-up outpatient A specified time span, also referred to as the opti- therapy scheduled upon release. Although this term is used in a variety of contexts, The professionals who arrive on the scene attempt to ad- the term is most closely associated with ethology, the minister preventative procedures to avert mental disor- study of animal behavior in its natural environment ders such as post-traumatic stress disorder,which may from the perspective of evolutionary adaptation. For example, many issues of interest propriately maternal object during a critical period to psychologists are not addressed by anthropologists, would activate the “following” instinct of newborn who have their own concerns traditionally, including such goslings: he successfully had a group of goslings follow topics as kinship, land distribution, and ritual. However, there is no significant posed to humans in order to make good pets and the body of anthropological data on many of the more ab- early months in which birds must be exposed to the char- stract questions commonly addressed by psychologists, acteristic song of their species in order to learn it. In one of The specifically human phenomenon of language the best known studies, researchers found evidence that development also appears to be subject to a critical peri- human perceptual processes develop differently depend- od. So-called “wild” or “feral” children deprived of ing on what types of shapes and angles people are ex- human society for an extended period show that they posed to daily in their environment. People living in have been unable to catch up on language due to lack of countries such as the United States with many buildings exposure early in life. For ex- studies have also discovered that the symptoms of most ample, the embryonic stage in humans is a critical period psychological disorders vary from one culture to another, for certain types of growth (such as the appearance of the and has led to a reconsideration of what constitutes nor- heart, eyes, ears, hands, and feet) which must occur for mal human sexuality. This observation A subfield of psychology concerned with observing posed a challenge to Freud’s oedipal theory by raising the human behavior in contrasting cultures. The ques- pass of psychological research beyond the few highly in- tions raised by Malinowski’s observation demonstrate a dustrialized nations on which it has traditionally focused. Psychological re- ly, most experts concur that “culture” involves patterns of search often confounds, or merges, two variables in a situ- behavior, symbols, and values. The prominent anthropol- ation in this case, the boy’s anger toward his father and ogist Clifford Geertz has described culture as “. A cross- torically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in cultural perspective can untangle such confounded vari- symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in ables when it finds them occurring separately in other cul- symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, tures—e. The cult leader governs most, if not all, aspects of those of the majority culture—may be constituted in dif- the lives of his or her followers, often insisting that they ferent ways. Often, it is an ethnic, racial, or religious break all ties with the world outside of the cult. Any group that develops its own customs, norms, groups are usually thought of in terms of religion, al- and jargon may be considered a subculture, however, in- though other types of cults can and do exist. The proliferation of religious cults in the United A prominent area of intersection between psychological States is considered by many experts as symptomatic of inquiry and subcultures within the United States has been the general social discordance that has plagued postwar the issue of cultural bias in testing. Cults offer the allure of an ordered assert that there is no evidence for bias across race or so- world that is easily understood. Clear rules of behavior cial class in “standardized” intelligence and achievement are enforced and nagging questions about meaning and tests. However, children whose primary language is not purpose are dispelled by the leader, who defines mem- English should be tested in their primary language. It is probably most useful to examine the phenomenon of cults without Further Reading dwelling on the sensationalistic practices of the flamboy- Barnouw, Victor. Rethinking Psychological Anthropology: Con- examines a cult and its dynamics, what is actually ob- tinuity and Change in the Study of Human Action. To understand this process, consider that many so- Cross-sectional study cial organizations other than what we traditionally think of as cults require strict adherence to a set of beliefs and, Research that collects data simultaneously from people of different ages, in contrast to a longitudi- in turn, provide a sense of meaning and purpose to their nal study, which follows one group of subjects over followers. The rigid social contract of the A cross-sectional study is a research method where military, for instance, is considered by many psycholo- data are collected at the same time from people in differ- gists as being cult-like. It contrasts with the method, known have had a profound impact on the lives of its followers as longitudinal study, where the same group of subjects include self-help groups, such as Alcoholics Anony- is studied over time. One weakness, or confounding vari- mous, where selflessness and devotion to the group are able, of the cross-sectional study is that its subjects, in highly valued and rewarded. Certain types of political addition to being different ages, are also born in different groups and terrorist organizations are still other exam- years, and their behavior may thus be influenced by dif- ples of “cults” that defy the common definition of the ferences in education, cultural influences, and medical term. In the longitudinal study, data can be obtained try at the University of California at San Francisco, is from subjects of different ages born within the same pe- one of many psychologists who has observed cultic be- riod of time. However, a confounding variable in longi- havior in many areas of society other than in extremist tudinal studies is the degree to which each person’s envi- religious groups. In the introduction to his 1990 book, ronmental influences will vary from those of others over The Wrong Way Home: Uncovering the Patterns of Cult the period of time covered by the experiment. Behavior in American Society, Deikman asserted that “behavior similar to that which takes place in extreme cults takes place in all of us,” and suggested that “the longing for parents persists into adulthood and results in cult behavior that pervades normal society. Marc Galanter, professor of psychiatry at New York University, defines the charac- A cult is a structured group, most of whose mem- teristics of charismatic groups in his study Cults: Faith, bers demonstrate unquestioned loyalty to a dynamic Healing, and Coercion (1989). Often, family members 4) impute charismatic (or sometimes divine) power to of persons in religious cults hire what are called “depro- the group or its leadership. Still Most psychologists would probably acknowledge other experts, drawing on the field of sociobiology, sug- that there exists a deep human need to belong to a group. Whatever the origins of the psychological need to be Followers of American-born cult leader Jim Jones a part of a defined group, the fact is most people do not left the U. Usually, man and three journalists investigating the cult were such a young person is approached by friendly, outgoing killed, Jones persuaded 911 members of his People’s recruiters for the cult who express a deep interest in the Temple flock to kill themselves with cyanide-laced po- person’s life and offer empathy and understanding for tions in a mass suicide on Nov. These difficul- leader of the Branch Davidians, a group that originally ties may be in relation to a failed romance, an unhappy split from the Seventh Day Adventist Church during the family life, or an existential crisis of the sort usually as- Depression, led 82 people to their death, when he re- sociated with late adolescence in which a young person fused to be served with a search and arrest warrant at the has no idea how they fit in the world. Koresh’s followers often trained to provide a “friendly ear” to troubled believed he was the Messiah, despite reports of child young people, to validate their experiences as being abuse and other questionable behaviors.

Abusers may continue to take drugs buy antabuse 500mg with amex treatment xerostomia, but health education can raise awareness of the dangers and suggest safer ways to take drugs so that users can make their own informed decisions purchase antabuse 500mg otc medicine pictures. It is listed as a class A drug under the 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act (Wake 1995) discount antabuse 250mg with visa treatment zinc toxicity, so may only be legally possessed if authorised by the Home Office (Dimond 1995) buy antabuse 250mg without a prescription symptoms 0f brain tumor. Ecstasy stimulates feelings of euphoria and benevolence (Wake 1995), breaking down social inhibitions and heightening emotional attachment to others (Cook 1995), hence the names ‘Ecstasy’ and ‘love drug’ (ironically, it impairs libido (Cook 1995)). Ecstasy contains amphetamine, causing hypermetabolism, providing energy which enables users to dance continuously for (literally) hours (Cook 1995). Abuse The ‘pleasure centre’ in the hypothalamus is activated by neurotransmitters (e. Exogenous drugs that induce euphoria trap endogenous dopamine in the synapses of the pleasure centre. Constant stimulation of the pleasure centre causes a ‘high’ (Marieb 1995); but exogenous drugs also inhibit production of endogenous dopamine so that, once trapped, dopamine is metabolised and, if the central nervous system cannot meet demand, a ‘low’ follows. Exogenous drugs can restore the ‘high’, and so victims take further doses; progressive damage to endogenous neurotransmitters cause addiction, with addicts taking ever larger doses (Jones & Owens 1996) to prevent the ‘lows’. Different tablets often have dissimilar strengths, so that even users with previous experience of the drugs cannot be sure how each dose will affect them. Hence, an accidental overdose can easily occur, and individual metabolism and tolerance can further influence the effect. Ecstasy is often taken at ‘raves’, where users dance for hours in hot, humid, poorly ventilated conditions (Jones & Owens 1996). Ten or more tablets are usually taken at once, often together with other drugs (Cook 1995) and alcohol, so that variable doses of 50–200 mg/tablet can be multiplied tenfold. Ecstasy is usually taken orally, although rectal use, enabling quicker absorption, is also popular (Cook 1995). Oral tablets begin working within one hour, usually lasting for up to six hours, but excessive doses may continue working for more than 24 hours (MacConnachie 1997b). Toxicity can develop quickly and unexpectedly (MacConnachie 1997b), and misunderstandings by users may compound problems (e. Illegal drugs are often transported in body cavities (‘body packing’) (Jones & Owens 1996), especially the rectum. The rectum is highly vascular, so that if bags break, drugs are efficiently absorbed; drug traffickers may be admitted with accidental overdoses. Understandably, they may be reluctant to admit that they have a continuing rectal drug Ecstacy overdoses 395 infusion, while attempts to remove bags may cause further internal spillage (Jones & Owens 1996). If drugs have not yet been absorbed, an activated charcoal slurry washout may limit absorption within two hours of ingestion (MacConnachie 1997b). Ecstasy is now among the most widely used illicit drugs in this country (McGuire et al. Reticular activating system suppression (see Chapter 3) overloads the cerebral cortex with impulses, causing psychedelic mood changes (Cook 1995), enhanced perception (Wake 1995) and potential psychiatric complications. Animal studies show long-term destruction of serotoninergic axons and terminals from as little as 20 mg; re-innervation is possible, but often abnormal (Green & Goodwin 1996). Metabolic problems Ecstasy increases both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism; early complications from sympathomimetic action are largely cerebrovascular, but later effects include hyperpyrexia and muscle rigidity (MacConnachie 1997b). Most Ecstasy-related deaths are caused by fulminant hyperthermia, with temperature increasing by up to 2°C every hour (Wake 1995) (starting from systemic absorption of the drug, not admission to hospital) until death occurs at, on average, 41. Increased metabolism causes hypercapnia and lactic acidosis which, if profound, lead to a syndrome of cell damage, increased capillary membrane permeability, increased oxygen consumption and electrolyte imbalance (calcium, potassium, creatinine, phosphokinase and myoglobin release from muscle cells (Wake 1995)). Hyperventilation (double/triple minute volumes) compensates both for metabolic acidosis and increased tissue oxygen delivery (Wake 1995). Profound metabolic acidosis may require reversal with sodium bicarbonate (Wake 1995; MacConnachie 1997b) (see Chapter 19). Hyperkalaemia may be reduced by intravenous insulin and dextrose (Wake 1995), which facilitates potassium transfer to intracellular fluid (rebound hyperkalaemia may occur later). Serum potassium monitoring should therefore continue Intensive care nursing 396 after returning to ‘normal’. Increased intracellular calcium also causes erratic, uncontrolled, but constant, muscle contractions (fuelling further hypermetabolism and hyperpyrexia) and muscle rigidity, lockjaw and teeth grinding. Water intoxification can cause severe hyponatraemia (118–110 mmol/l), necessitating hypertonic saline infusions. Blood sugars should be closely monitored and glucose supplements given as prescribed. Vascular damage from intravenous drug abuse (‘mainlining’) and heavy smoking (Jones & Owens 1996) may make cannulation difficult. Myocardial infarction is treated with thrombolysis (Jones & Owens 1996) (see Chapter 24). Adrenaline should be avoided, as it exacerbates adrenergic storm (Jones & Owens 1996). Renal problems Hypermetabolism causes muscle breakdown (rhabdomyolysis); myoglobin deposits obstruct renal tubules, causing acute renal failure (Wake 1995) and myoglobinuria (orange-brown urine) (Jones & Owens 1996). Psychological complications include depression, anxiety and memory disturbance (McCann et al. Habitual use damages serotonin and dopaminergic neurones (Day 1996), causing permanent cognitive impairment (Parrott et al. Survivors often experience frequent and persistent panic attacks (‘bad trips’), believing death to be imminent (McGuire et al. Cerebral perfusion and oxygenation should be optimised, together with antiepileptics (usually benzodiazepines, although these can exacerbate cardiac instability) (Jones & Owens 1996). Implications for practice ■ overdoses can affect all major body systems; vital signs should be closely monitored ■ peak effect often occurs 7. In addition to multisystem physiological problems (not usually occurring in younger people), users (and friends) often experience anxiety or guilt. Care is needed, therefore, to integrate urgent multisystem physiological support with skilful psychological care. Caring for such patients is challenging and can cause distress, but holistic nursing care can contribute significantly to every aspect of recovery. Useful contacts Families Anonymous: 0207 498–4680 Drugline Ltd, Drug Advisory Bureau: 0208 692–4975 Turning Point, Grove Park, Camberwell, London: 0207 274–4883 Intensive care nursing 398 Further reading Useful specialist nursing articles include Jones & Owens (1996), Wake (1995) and Cunningham (1997)). For other fields, Cook (1995) is brief, but gives information for health promotion, while Tober (1994) is an excellent piece of research. Explain why Kelly became euphoric, hypermetabolic, hyperthermic, tachycardic, hypotensive, acidotic and low blood sugar, etc. Evaluate advice and support offered to patients such as Kelly in your clinical practice area.

In a similar vein buy antabuse 500 mg line when administering medications 001mg is equal to, Edwards and Gross’s (1976) theory of alcohol dependence syndrome argued that consistent alcohol use resulted in cell changes and subsequent dependency order antabuse 250 mg visa medicine 3601. Applied to smoking cheap antabuse 250 mg visa treatment plantar fasciitis, this perspective suggests that nicotine causes addiction through its constant use discount antabuse 500 mg online medications 222. Although this perspective is classified as a 2nd disease concept, it is reminiscent of the 1st disease concept as the emphasis is on the substance rather than on the individual. However, this ‘all or nothing’ perspective may actually promote relapse through encouraging individuals to set unreasonable targets of abstinence and by establishing the self- fulfilling prophecy of ‘once a drunk always a drunk’. The phenomenon of controlled drinking indicated that perhaps an addiction was not irreversible and that abstinence may not be the only treatment goal. The social learning perspective differs from the disease model of addiction in several ways: s Addictive behaviours are seen as acquired habits, which are learned according to the rules of social learning theory. The processes involved in learning an addictive behaviour To a social learning perspective, addictive behaviours are learned according to the follow- ing processes: (1) classical conditioning; (2) operant conditioning; (3) observational learning; and (4) cognitive processes. Classical conditioning The rules of classical conditioning state that behaviours are acquired through the processes of associative learning. In terms of a potentially addictive behaviour, smoking cigarettes may be associated with external cues (e. It has been argued that a pairing with an internal cue is more problematic because these cues cannot be avoided. Generalization occurs when the withdrawal symptoms from a period of abstinence from an addictive behaviour act as cues for further behaviour. For example, if an individual has paired feeling anxious with smoking, their withdrawal symptoms may be interpreted as anxiety and therefore elicit further smoking behaviour; the behaviour provides relief from its own withdrawal symptoms. Operant conditioning The rules of operant conditioning state that the probability of behaviour occurring is increased if it is either positively reinforced by the presence of a positive event, or negatively reinforced by the absence or removal of a negative event. In terms of an addictive behaviour such as smoking, the probability of smoking will be increased by feelings of social acceptance, confidence and control (the positive reinforcer) and removal of withdrawal symptoms (the negative reinforcer). Observational learning/modelling Behaviours are also learned by observing significant others carrying them out. For example, parental smoking, an association between smoking and attractiveness/ thinness, and the observation of alcohol consumption as a risk-taking behaviour may contribute to the acquisition of the behaviour. Cognitive factors Factors such as self-image, problem-solving behaviour, coping mechanisms and attributions also contribute to the acquisition of an addictive behaviour. Integrating a disease and social learning perspective Researchers often polarize a disease and a social learning perspective of addiction. For example, whilst some researchers argue that smoking is entirely due to the addictive properties of nicotine others argue that it is a learned behaviour. For example, whilst a disease model may emphasize acquired tolerance following smoking or drinking behaviour and there- fore draws upon a disease perspective, it implicitly uses a social learning approach to explain why some people start smoking/drinking in the first place and why only some continue to the extent that they develop acquired tolerance. People need exposure and reinforcement to make the smoke or drink enough to develop tolerance. Likewise, people might smoke an increasing number of cigarettes because they have learned that smoking relieves withdrawal symptoms. However, whilst this form of association is derived from a social learning perspective it implicitly uses a disease perspective in that it requires the existence of physical with- drawal symptoms. Therefore, most researchers draw upon both disease and social learning perspectives. Sometimes, this interaction between the two forms of models is made explicit and the researchers acknowledge that they believe both sources of influence are important. These four stages will now be examined in detail for smoking and alcohol use and are illustrated in Figure 5. Fifty years later, approximately 30 per cent of the adult population still smoke even though most of Fig. In fact, research exploring whether smokers appreciate the risks of smoking in comparison with the risks of murder and traffic accidents showed that smokers were accurate in their perception of the risks of smoking and showed similar ratings of risk to both ex-smokers and never smokers (Sutton 1998b). The early health promotion campaigns focused mainly on the determinants of smoking in adult men, but over recent years there has been an increasing interest in smoking in children. It is therefore difficult to distinguish between actual initiation and maintenance of smoking behaviour. Smoking in children Doll and Peto (1981) reported that people whose smoking is initiated in childhood have an increased chance of lung cancer compared with those who start smoking later on in life. This is particularly significant as most adult smokers start the habit in childhood and very few people start smoking regularly after the age of 19 or 20 (Charlton 1992). Lader and Matheson (1991) reviewed the data from national surveys between 1982 and 1990 and indicated that smoking behaviour in 11- to 15-year-old school boys – including those boys who have just tried a cigarette – had fallen from 55 per cent to 44 per cent and that smoking in school girls of a comparable age had fallen from 51 per cent to 42 per cent. Although this showed a decrease, it was less than the decrease shown in adult smoking, and the data showed that in 1990 nearly a half of the school children had at least tried one cigarette. In fact, many children try their first cigarette whilst at primary school (Murray et al. Psychological predictors of smoking initiation In an attempt to understand smoking initiation and maintenance, researchers have searched for the psychological and social processes that may promote smoking behaviour. Models of health behaviour such as the health belief model, the protection motivation theory, the theory of reasoned action and the health action process approach (see Chapter 2) have been used to examine the cognitive factors that contribute to smoking initiation (e. Additional cognitions that predict smoking behaviour include associating smoking with fun and pleasure, smoking as a means of calming nerves and smoking as being sociable and building confidence, all of which have been reported by young smokers (Charlton 1984; Charlton and Blair 1989; see also Chapter 11 for a discussion of smoking and stress reduction). Social predictors of smoking initiation and maintenance Much research focuses on the individual and takes the individual out of their social context. Individual cognitions may predict smoking behaviour but they are a product of the individual’s socialization. Interactions within the individual’s social world help to create and develop a child’s beliefs and behaviour. The main factor that predicts smoking is parental smoking, with reports that children are twice as likely to smoke if their parents smoke (Lader and Matheson 1991). In addition, parents’ attitudes to smoking also influence their offsprings’ behaviour. For example, if a child perceives the parents as being strongly against smoking, he or she is up to seven times less likely to be a smoker (Murray et al. The results showed that individuals who are identified by themselves and others as being problem-prone, doing poorly at school, rarely involved in school sports, high in risk-taking behaviour such as alcohol and drug use, and with low self-esteem were more likely to have smoked (Mosbach and Leventhal 1988; Sussman et al. On the other hand, research has also found that high rates of smoking can also be found in children who are seen as leaders of academic and social activities, have high self-esteem and are regarded as popular by their peers (Mosbach and Leventhal 1988). Another factor that influences whether children smoke is the attitude of their school to smoking behaviour. A Cancer Research Campaign study (1991) found that smoking prevalence was lower in schools that had a ‘no smoking’ policy, particularly if this policy included staff as well as students. In summary, social factors such as the behaviour and beliefs of parents, peers and schools influence the beliefs and behaviours of children. Using an entirely different methodology, Graham used interviews with low income women with pre-school children to explore the contextual factors which may maintain smoking behaviour. She argued that although smoking is seen by researchers as unhealthy and something to be prevented, the women in her study regarded smoking as central to their attempts to ‘reconcile health keeping and housekeeping when their reserves of emotional and physical energy may be seriously depleted’ (Graham 1987: 55). She stated that smoking works to promote these women’s sense of well-being and to help them cope with caring.

Although testosterone levels are higher in men than in women buy generic antabuse 500mg treatment deep vein thrombosis, the relationship between testosterone and aggression is not limited to males best 250 mg antabuse treatment 2nd degree burn. Studies have also shown a positive relationship between testosterone and aggression and related behaviors (such as competitiveness) in women (Cashdan discount 250mg antabuse with visa symptoms diarrhea, [4] 2003) buy antabuse 250mg online treatment lead poisoning. It must be kept in mind that the observed relationships between testosterone levels and aggressive behavior that have been found in these studies do not prove that testosterone causes aggression—the relationships are only correlational. In fact, there is evidence that the relationship between violence and testosterone also goes in the other direction: Playing an aggressive game, such as tennis or even chess, increases the testosterone levels of the winners Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Recent research has also begun to document the role that female sex hormones may play in reactions to others. A study about hormonal influences on social-cognitive functioning (Macrae, [6] Alnwick, Milne, & Schloerscheidt, 2002) found that women were more easily able to perceive and categorize male faces during the more fertile phases of their menstrual cycles. Although researchers did not directly measure the presence of hormones, it is likely that phase-specific hormonal differences influenced the women’s perceptions. At this point you can begin to see the important role the hormones play in behavior. But the hormones we have reviewed in this section represent only a subset of the many influences that hormones have on our behaviors. In the chapters to come we will consider the important roles that hormones play in many other behaviors, including sleeping, sexual activity, and helping and harming others. What physiological reactions did you experience in the situation, and what aspects of the endocrine system do you think created those reactions? Testosterone, physical aggression, dominance, and physical development in early adolescence. Person perception across the menstrual cycle: Hormonal influences on social-cognitive functioning. Neurons are composed of a soma that contains the nucleus of the cell; a dendrite that collects information from other cells and sends the information to the soma; and a long segmented fiber, known as the axon, which transmits information away from the cell body toward other neurons and to the muscles and glands. An electrical charge moves through the neuron itself, and chemicals are used to transmit information between neurons. Within the neuron, the electrical charge occurs in the form of an action potential. Neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons, where they bind to the dendrites in the neighboring neurons. More than 100 chemical substances produced in the body have been identified as neurotransmitters, and these substances have a wide and profound effect on emotion, cognition, and behavior. Drugs that we may ingest may either mimic (agonists) or block (antagonists) the operations of neurotransmitters. The brains of all animals are layered, and generally quite similar in overall form. It controls the most basic functions of life, including breathing, attention, and motor responses. Above the brain stem are other parts of the old brain involved in the processing of behavior and emotions, including the thalamus, the cerebellum, and the limbic system. The cerebral cortex contains about 20 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic connections, and it’s supported by billions more glial cells that surround and link to the neurons. The frontal lobe is primarily responsible for thinking, planning, memory, and judgment. The occipital lobe processes visual information, and the temporal lobe is responsible for hearing and language. The cortex also includes the motor cortex, the somatosensory cortex, the visual cortex, the auditory cortex, and the association areas. The brain can develop new neurons, a process known as neurogenesis, as well as new routes for neural communications (neuroplasticity). Sensory (afferent) neurons carry information from the sensory receptors, whereas motor (efferent) neurons transmit information to the muscles and glands. Glands in the endocrine system include the pituitary gland, the pancreas, the adrenal glands, and the male and female sex glands. The male sex hormone testosterone and the female sex Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Many roads in the area were closed for security reasons, and police presence was high. As a prank, eight members of the Australian television satire The Chaser’s War on Everything assembled a false motorcade made up of two black four-wheel-drive vehicles, a black sedan, two motorcycles, body guards, and chauffeurs (see the video below). Group member Chas Licciardello was in one of the cars disguised as Osama bin Laden. The motorcade drove through Sydney‘s central business district and entered the security zone of the meeting. The motorcade was waved on by police, through two checkpoints, until the Chaser group decided it had taken the gag far enough and stopped outside the InterContinental Hotel where former President Bush was staying. Only at this time did the police belatedly check the identity of the group members, finally arresting them. Afterward, the group testified that it had made little effort to disguise its attempt as anything more than a prank. The group‘s only realistic attempt to fool police was its Canadian-flag marked vehicles. The ability to detect and interpret the events that are occurring around us allows us to respond to [1] these stimuli appropriately (Gibson & Pick, 2000). In most cases the system is successful, but as you can see from the above example, it is not perfect. In this chapter we will discuss the strengths and limitations of these capacities, focusing on both sensation—awareness resulting from the stimulation of a sense organ, and perception—the organization and interpretation of sensations. Sensation and perception work seamlessly together to allow us to experience the world through our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, but also to combine what we are currently learning from the environment with what we already know about it to make judgments and to choose appropriate behaviors. The study of sensation and perception is exceedingly important for our everyday lives because the knowledge generated by psychologists is used in so many ways to help so many people. Psychologists work closely with mechanical and electrical engineers, with experts in defense and military contractors, and with clinical, health, and sports psychologists to help them apply this knowledge to their everyday practices. The research is used to help us understand and better prepare people to cope with such diverse events as driving cars, flying planes, creating robots, [2] and managing pain (Fajen & Warren, 2003). We will begin the chapter with a focus on the six senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, and monitoring the body’s positions (proprioception). We will see that sensation is sometimes relatively direct, in the sense that the wide variety of stimuli around us inform and guide our behaviors quickly and accurately, but nevertheless is always the result of at least some interpretation. We do not directly experience stimuli, but rather we experience those stimuli as they are created by our senses. Each sense accomplishes the basic process of transduction—the conversion of stimuli detected by receptor cells to electrical impulses that are then transported to the brain—in different, but related, ways. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 29(2), 343–362. Explain the difference between sensation and perception and describe how psychologists measure sensory and difference thresholds. Humans possess powerful sensory capacities that allow us to sense the kaleidoscope of sights, sounds, smells, and tastes that surround us.

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