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Philippines cephalexin 250 mg online bacteria experiments for kids, Hong Kong generic 250mg cephalexin with amex virus living or not, China order cephalexin 500 mg on line antibiotic misuse, Thailand generic cephalexin 750 mg free shipping bacteria define, Burma, Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Maldives. Occurrence In India, indigenous pockets exist in Andaman and Worldwide in endemic form. Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Punjab, certain areas in North America, Mexico, India, Pakistan, Himachal Pradesh and Bihar. Majority of cases occur in The disease occurs in scrubby terrain, forests, and summer and autumn. Man gets infected when infected mite larva attaches itself to man, sucks lymph and tissue fluids and introduces 3 to 14 days. No effective vaccine is available for prevention Control measures are based upon tick control, preven- tion of tick bites and immunization. Tick bites may Control is based upon regulation of the environment be prevented by avoiding notorious areas in spring and and animate measures. Reference Two other tick borne rickettsial infections are African tick-typhus and Q fever, caused by R. Washington: American Public Health influenza like disease and is recognized allover the world. African tick typhus is also known as Indian tick typhus as it is also found in India. It manifests as fever lasting 2 to 3 weeks, accompanied by a maculo-papular rash, first appearing on wrists and Identification ankles. In louse-borne relapsing fever, there are 2 to 3 bouts of Gangrene of scrotum may sometimes occur. Guinea pig inoculation results in fever borne relapsing fever and bouts of fever are shorter, and scrotal reaction. When spirochetemia cannot be demonstrated in this way, patient’s blood may be inoculated intraperitoneally into Occurrence young mice which develop spirochetemia within 14 days. When it is crushed and squeezed, the Borrelia recurrentis, a spirochaete, in case of louse type and spirochetes enter through abrasions and possibly, the Borrelia duttonii and some other strains in the tick type. The tick can transmit the infection while sucking blood since the organisms are present in its salivary glands. Because of transovarian infection, the Occurrence tick acts as the reservoir of infection, which the louse The louse type has occurred in epidemic form in does not. Immunity acquired after an famine, when people tend to crowed together and lice attack is of low order. Wild rodents and ticks Vector control against lice and ticks should be under- (through transovarian infection) in case of the tick-borne taken. Louse and soft tick, the vectors, become infective about 2 weeks after biting a patient and remain so for the Reference whole life. Oxford: Oxford University Pess 1994; The louse neither injects the infection by bite, nor passes 5:294. Stage of paralysis: General paralysis, hemiplegia or Miscellaneous Zoonoses paraplegia develop. Zoonosis is defined as an infection or infectious disease Rabies in dog occur after an incubation period of transmissible under natural conditions from vertebrate 3 to 6 weeks, rarely more than a year. The following zoonotic rabies, which accounts for 80 percent cases of canine diseases have already been described: rabies, occurs in 3 stages: Bacterial: Brucellosis, colibacillosis (enteropathogenic • The temperament and behavior of the dog is altered. Helminthic: Echinococcosis, teniasis, hymenolepsis In dumb rabies, there is no excitation or fury but and fasciolopsis. It constitutes 20 percent In this chapter are described only those zoonotic of the total rabies in dogs. These are rabies, rat bite fever, leptospirosis, Rabies in animals and humans is still diagnosed on the anthrax, glanders and tetanus. Prodromal stage: Fever, severe headache, anxiety medical record and; for epidemiological purposes. When the patient wants to impression, smear or frozen section of brain drink water, a sudden spasm of the muscles of tissue is examined microscopically under mouth, pharynx and respiratory system develops, ultraviolet light. The test can be carried out under field conditions since the capable of causing infection in 5 to 6 days. This attribute is taken advantage of in the preparation • Tests for diagnosis in patients: of vaccine against rabies. The virus is found in the salivary glands and central – Antibody detection: Virus neutralizing antibodies nervous system of dogs and other rabid animals. As a disease of animals, rabies is found allover the Peridomestic: Cows and buffaloes, pigs, sheep and world. Three to five million individuals are given M ode of Transm ission postexposure prophylaxis every year. The wild reservoirs for rabies is absent as there instance of spread from man to man, transmission are no foxes, jackles, wolves and bats on the islands. These are round, Period of Com m unicability oval or angular bodies, varying in diameter from 0. The virus multiplies mostly in the nervous the animal remains healthy and alive for at least 10 days tissue and is distributed in the nervous system, saliva, after the bite, antirabies treatment is not indicated. When Incubation Period the virus is freshly isolated from a case, it is called as street virus which requires 12 to 25 days to produce It is variable, usually 2 to 8 weeks. The length series of rabbits, the virus can be made a fixed virus of incubation period depends upon: • The distance between brain and the site of the wound. First aid: Elimination of rabies virus from the site of Average incubation periods are 60, 40 and 30 days infection is the most important protective measure. This is done by physical means (washing and • Richness of nerve supply on the part bitten. Genitals flushing the wound well with soap solution, detergent and face, for example, have rich nerve supply. Treatment by doctor • Whether the bite is through bare skin or through • Antirabies immunoglobulin should be applied by clothes. This is almost always fatal, though rare instances of recovery explained by the long incubation period of rabies. When the animal remains healthy throughout the Local Treatm ent observation period of ten days (in case of cats and dogs). Wounds should be categorized as given below because treatment and outcome depend upon the nature of 2. A brief description is given below: Management: No treatment is required, if history is reliable. In 1919, Semple • Minor scratches or abrasions without bleeding prepared an inactivated form. It is economical and easy to prepare, with Route Regimen Dose Schedule (Days) less side effects compared to neural tissue vaccine. The following • Less number of doses are required, so patient schedules are used: compliance is better. Intramuscular schedule: One dose of the vaccine is • Immune response is developed early, so better administered on days 0, 3, 7, 14 and 30. Mild reactions might occur at the site of injection such Nerve Tissue Vaccines as pain, reddening and swelling.

The middle ureteral lymphatics drain to the common iliac nodes and the lower ureteral lymphatics to the external and internal iliac nodes buy discount cephalexin 750mg line bacteria zip line girl. All the iliac nodes drain to the paraaortic nodes cheap cephalexin 500 mg without prescription bacteria reproduce using, cisterna chyli order 750 mg cephalexin amex infection from earring, and predominantly the left supraclavicular nodes via the thoracic duct order 250mg cephalexin with mastercard antibiotics for dogs ears. Lymph node status is a strong prognostic indicator in patients with kidney cancer [26, 27 ] with 5-year disease-speci fi c survival for patients with node-positive disease reported between 21 % and 38 % [28, 29]. These include nodes along the renal arteries from the renal hilum to the paraaortic nodes at this level (see Fig. Ten to fifteen percent of patients have regional nodal involvement without distant spread. Lymphatic spread may continue above or below the level of the renal hilum, with subse- quent spread to the cisterna chyli and to the left supraclavicular nodes via the thoracic duct. Occasionally, there is spread from these nodes to the mediastinum and pulmonary hilar nodes [1]. Diagnosis of patho- logic lymph nodes is problematic, as approximately 50 % of enlarged regional nodes are hyperplastic [30]. Criteria currently used for suspect nodes are those 1 cm or 82 3 Abdominal Lymph Node Anatomy Fig. Clustering of three or more nodes in the regional area is also suggestive of metastatic spread. The sites of regional lymphatic spread are dependent on the location of the tumor. The paraaortic nodes are involved initially in the renal pelvic and upper ureteral tumors (see Fig. If the origin is from the middle ureter, metastases are to the common iliac nodes, whereas lower ureteral tumors involve the internal and external nodes initially. Lymphatics within the wall of the ureter allow for direct extension within the wall [1 ] Adrenal Tumors Primary malignant tumors of the adrenal gland arise from the cortex as adrenocortical carcinomas or from the medulla as pheochromocytomas or in the spectrum of the neuroblastoma ganglioneuroma complex. Most of these tumors spread by lymphatic spread to the para-aortic lymph nodes [1 ]. Pancreatic Cancer Pancreatic cancer is the second most common gastrointestinal malignancy and is the fifth leading cause of cancer-related death. The majority of cases are ductal adeno- carcinomas (exocrine ductal epithelium, 95 % of cases). Lymph node metastases are common in pancre- atic and duodenal cancer and they carry a poor prognosis [31, 32]. Lymphatic Spread and Nodal Metastasis 83 Lymphatic Spread and Nodal Metastasis Lymphatic drainage of the head of the pancreas is different from that of the body and tail (Table 3. The head of the pancreas and the duodenum share similar drainage pathways by following arteries around the head of the pancreas [32, 33]. They can be divided into three major routes: the gastroduodenal, the inferior pancreaticoduodenal, and the dorsal pancreatic: 1. Around the head of the pancreas, multiple lymph nodes can be found between the pancreas and duodenum above and below the root of the transverse mesocolon and anterior and posterior to the head of the pancreas. Although many names are used for these nodes such as the inferior and superior pancreaticoduodenal nodes (see Fig. The gas- troduodenal route collects lymphatics from the anterior pancreaticoduodenal nodes (see Figs. The inferior pancreaticoduodenal route also receives lymphatic drainage from the anterior and posterior pancreaticoduodenal nodes by following the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery to the superior mesenteric artery node. Occasionally, they may also drain into the node at the proximal jejunal mesentery. It collects lymphatics along the medial border of the head of the pancreas and follows the branch of the dorsal pancreatic artery to the superior mesenteric artery or celiac node. The lymphatic drainage of the body and tail of the pancreas follows the dorsal pancreatic artery, the splenic artery, and vein to the celiac lymph node. The lymphatic drainage of the body and tail of the pancreas follows the dorsal pancreatic artery, the splenic artery, and vein to the celiac lymph node. Because of the lack of accu- racy, peripancreatic lymph nodes and the nodes along the gastroduodenal artery and inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery are included in radiation field, and they are rou- tinely resected at the time of pancreaticoduodenectomy. However, it is important to note when an abnormal node, such as one with low density and/or irregular border, is detected beyond the usual drainage basin and outside the routine surgical or radia- tion field, such as in the proximal jejunal mesentery or at the base of the transverse mesocolon, as these can be the site of recurrent disease [1]. Noninvasive detection of clinically occult lymph- node metastases in prostate cancer. Prognostic significance of lymph node invasion in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma: a population-based perspective. Stage-specific effect of nodal metastases on survival in patients with non-metastatic renal cell carcinoma. Renal cell carcinoma with retroperitoneal lymph nodes: role of lymph node dissection. Prognostic relevance of lymph node ratio following pancreaticoduodenectomy for pancreatic cancer. Pelvic Lymph Nodes 4 A good basic understanding of the anatomy and nomenclature of the inguino-pelvic nodal groups is essential for accurate staging of male and female urogenital pelvic neoplasms. Lymph nodes are not only crucial for staging and management but are also important factors in prognosticating the disease. Classification and Anatomical Location of Pelvic Lymph Nodes Common Iliac Nodal Group The common iliac nodal group consists of three subgroups: lateral, middle, and medial (see Fig. The lateral subgroup is an extension of the lateral chain of external iliac nodes located lateral to the common iliac artery (see Figs. The medial subgroup occupies the triangular area bordered by both common iliac arteries from the aortic bifurcation to the bifurcation of common iliac artery into external and internal iliac arteries. The middle subgroup is located in the lumbosacral fossa (the area bordered posteromedially by the lower lumbar or upper sacral vertebral bodies, anterolaterally by the psoas muscle, and anter- omedially by the common iliac vessels) and between the common iliac artery and common iliac vein [1 ] M. Schematic shows the common iliac nodal group, which consists of three chains: (1) the lateral chain, which is located lateral to the common iliac artery and forms an extension from the lateral external iliac nodal chain; (2) the medial chain, which occupies the triangular area bordered by both common iliac arteries and includes nodes at the sacral promontory; and (3) the middle chain, which consists of nodes within the lumbosacral fossa. The lateral subgroup includes nodes that are located along the lateral aspect of the external iliac artery (see Fig. The middle sub- group comprises nodes located between the external iliac artery and the external iliac vein (see Fig. The medial subgroup contains nodes located medial and posterior to the external iliac vein. Schematic shows the external iliac nodal group comprising the lateral chain, positioned laterally along the external iliac artery; the middle chain, situated between the external iliac artery and external iliac vein; and the medial chain (also known as obturator nodes), positioned medial and posterior to the external iliac vein Fig. These are, as depicted, the lateral (big purple) chain, the middle (small purple ) chain, and the medial (orange) chain Classification and Anatomical Location of Pelvic Lymph Nodes 93 Fig. Among the nodes of this group, the junctional nodes are located at the junction between the internal and external iliac nodal groups [2 ]. Schematic shows the chains of internal iliac lymph nodes that accompany the visceral branches of the internal iliac vessels.

Spring Catarrhal (Vernal Conjunctivitis) – It is a bilateral buy cephalexin 750 mg virus 64, seasonally recurrent buy generic cephalexin 750mg online antibiotics for sinus infection not penicillin, chronic conjunctivitis due to type I hypersensitivity allergic reaction to an external antigen buy cephalexin 500mg antibiotic resistance biology. Penicillin in high doses can induce immune mediated hemolysis via the hapten mechanism in which antibodies are targeted against the combination of penicillin in association with red blood cells order cephalexin 250 mg with mastercard antibiotic quiz pharmacology. Complement is activated by the attached antibody leading to the removal of red blood cells by the spleen. Antigenic structure and Virulence factors Cell Wall Associated Structures Activity Peptidoglycan • More thicker, • Confers cell rigidity and induces infammatory response Teichoic acid • Helps in adhesion to mucosal surfaces and prevent opsonisation Clumping factor/ Bound coagulase • Responsible for slide coagulase reaction I Protein A • Antiphagocytic, anti complementary, chemotactic • Binds to Fc region of IgG leaving Fab region free to bind to Protein A Antigen - Basis of Co- agglutination reaction • Binds to Fc region of IgG leaving Fab free to bind Extracellular factors Activity to Antigen - Basis of Co- a Hemolysin • Inactivated at 70°C reactivated paradoxically at 100°C agglutination reaction (due to denaturation of a heat labile inactivator at 100°C) • Leucocidal, Cytotoxic, dermonecrotic, lethal Contd. It will be sensitive to treatment with antibiotics containing amoxicillin+ clavulinic acid combination. Alteration in permeability /penetration of antibiotics – infection in a hospital ward? Clostridium botulinum found to be methicillin resistant on the antibiotic sensitivity 28. Which of the following organism is implicated in the aureus increases when it is incubated at 37°C on blood causation of botryomycosis? Intradietic toxin is responsible for intestinal symptoms identify the causative agent? Pyomyositis presents as fever, swelling, and pain overly- ing the involved muscle. Still it is under controversy and different school of thoughts have different opinions. Plenty of journals and references are there who support and oppose these statements. Ref: Harrison 18 e/p1163, 17th /879 & Ananthanarayan 9th/201, 8 e/p197, Jawetz 24 e/p224 & 25e/p185. So cooking the contaminated food and leaving at room temp for some time leads to toxin accumulation. About Other Options Option a- Optimum temperature for toxin production is same as Optimum temperature for S. So cooking the contaminated food and leaving at room temp for some time leads to toxin accumulation. Arora’s Microbiology 3/e p701 – Staphylococci can multiply at a wide range of temperatures; thus, if food is left to cool slowly and remains at room temperature after cooking, the organisms will have the opportunity to form enterotoxin. Streptokinase Fibrinolysin (activate plasminogen) Rapid spread- By preventing the formation of fbrin barrier. Due to antigenic cross This accounts for non-suppurative complications (like acute rheumatic fever and reactivity, antibody produced glomerulonephritis). Resistance in Enterococci: • Most strains are resistant to penicillin, aminoglycoside and sulfonamides. Treatment • Meningitis- Vancomycin + Cefotaxime • Invasive infection excluding meningitis- Penicillin G • Otitis media- Amoxycillin. Vaccine • Polysaccharide conjugate vaccine – • 23 valent, covers 90% of strains • Not useful for <2 year as it is T independent antigen. M protein (Recent Question of 2013) necessary to perform the culture of the throat swab of the b. Which of the following is this hemolysis on blood agar, resistant to bacitracin and a positive organism? The bacterium obtained was gram positive cocci in chains and alpha haemolytic colonies on sheep agar. Which group of streptococcus grow at 60°C: of the following will help in confirming the diagnosis: a. Neonatal meningitis causing Streptococci hydrolyses grade temperature and increased respiratory rate. After 7 for gram straining which showed the presence of pus cells days of antibiotics he develops a spike of fever and his blood and gram positive cocci in pair. The culture on the blood agar culture is positive for gram positive cocci in chains, which medium was also positive. Following this, vancomycin was started tests will help to differentiate the specific pathogen from the but the culture remained positive for the same organism even other commensal gram positive cocci? Vaccine is made from capsular polysaccharide sample collected for blood culture was subsequently b. Vaccine is routinely given to Indian children positive showing growth of a haemolytic colony. Bile insoluble and Optochin sensitive test for identification, the suspected pathogen is likely to be 36. Most common causative organism for lobar pneumonia is: susceptible to the following agent: a. In a patient of orbital cellulitis, organism on culture show bile resistant greenish colonies and Optochin sensitivity. Viridians- Catalase negative and alfa hemolytic – Enterococcus - Catalase negative and non hemolytic. Viridans – Option d- Catalase test is used to differentiate Streptococcus and Staphylococcus. About Other Options- – Salt mannitol media - Selective media Staphylococcus aureus – Stuart’s media - transport media for Gonococcus – Cary Blair media- transport media for enteric pathogens like Vibrio. Group D Streptococci - can be further divided into Enterococci and Nonenterococci. Strept Viridans: 3 Optochin sensitivity (Ethyl hydrocuprein) 3 Bile solubility Out of this, Bile solubility is a better Option because: 3 Few strains of Strept Viridans also can be sensitive to Optochin while few strains of Pneumococcus can be resistant. Clinical Feature • Rashes: A non-blanching rash (petechial or purpuric) develops in >80% of cases. Vaccine Polyvalent vaccine containing → A,C,Y, W-135 immunity lasts for 3 years • Dose-50 µg single dose, immunity starts in 10days, lasts for 3 years • Group A meningococcal polysaccharides vaccine -effective in preventing disease at all ages • Vaccination to travelers like Hajj pilgrimage I • No vaccine for Group B: – As Group B capsule is poorly immunogenic and No vaccine for Group B – Group B capsule is made up Sialic acid residue in capsule cross react with Meningococcus human brain tissue (fatal autoimmune consequences) • Not useful – below 3 year (capsule is poorly immunogenic < 3 year as it is T inde- pendent Antigen) • C/I- pregnancy. Gram staining: • For males: Gram staining of urethral discharge is more sensitive (90%)-Based on which treatment can be started • For females: Gram staining is less sensitive (50-60% ) due to presence of commensal Neisseria spp. It is the most common cause of meningitis in children Pathogenesis and diagnosis b. Educate students about meningococcal transmission and headache, nausea and vomiting. Tetanus • Route- injury, unhygienic surgery, abortion/delivery, otitis media • More common in warm climate and rural area with fertile soil I • 1st symptom-↑masseter tone (trismus/lock jaw) then→ descending tetanus Incubation Period of tetanus– • Hands feet are spared 6-10 days • Mentation unimpaired, deep tendon refex↑ Shorter Incubation Period→ • In neonates, diffculty in feeding is the usual presentation Graver is the prognosis • Autonomic disturbance is maximal during the second week of severe tetanus • Incubation Period – 6-10 days • Shorter Incubation Period→ graver the prognosis • Complications- – Risus sardonicus - characteristic, abnormal, sustained spasm of facial muscles, appears to produce grinning – Opisthotonus position – Respiratory muscles spasm-may cause airway obstruction • Noninfectious- no person to person spread • Diagnosis is always clinical, microscopy is unreliable. It requires trypsin or other proteolytic enzyme to convert to active form • It differs from other Exotoxin as it produced intracellularly and appear outside only after autolysis of the cell • Blocking of Ach release is permanent, but the action is short lasting as the recovery occurs in 2-4 months once the new terminal axon spourts. Post synaptic terminal of spinal cord 161 Review of Microbiology and Immunology c. Cause of clostridium difficile associated diarrhea: and functionally different from the conventional endotoxin a. Both should be kept in mind and 1st preference should be “terminal” but if it is not there in the option, sub terminal can also be ticked.

Tese Cystitis is the infammatory condition of the vesical end of urachus persists at the apex stones are usually discovered during cystos- bladder wall and is commoner in women of the bladder forming the diverticulum order 500 mg cephalexin mastercard virus ti snow. Urachal sinus-When the umbilical end Masked Type It is of the following types: of the urachus fails to obliterate giving rise In some cases of vesical calculus cephalexin 250mg free shipping antibiotics over the counter, the symp- 1 generic 750mg cephalexin fast delivery infection large intestine. Acute abacterial cystitis or acute hem- Vesical Stone tigations should be done to exclude vesical orrhage cystitis due to trauma discount 250mg cephalexin mastercard infection transmission, toxic Bladder calculi may be the result of stones calculus. The usual reason for the later is blad- ureters and bladder) reveals vesical calcu- c. Chemically this is made up of either triple pathology like diverticulum, tumor of i. Bacteria-Mycobacterium tuberculosis, phosphate (ammonium, magnesium and cal- bladder, enlarged prostate, etc. Tus mild degrees of cystitis are common but more Usual Type Treatment severe forms occur only in presence of a pre- • Frequency is the earliest symptom and 1. Endoscopic removal – Endoscopically rent episodes of cystitis in multiparous majora at the end of micturition; such pain small stones may simply be washed out women. Prostatic enlargement-Most common stone falls back from the trigone into the Larger stones, however, need to be broken predisposing factor in men. Carcinoma of bladder-Here the ulcer- urine and to fnd out the cause of hematuria that a collagen disturbance may be ated surface and necrotic debris will cause if present. Cystectomy with urinary diversion is the Most cases of cystitis are due to ascending only option for severe recurrent cases. Chronicity of infection gives rise to majority of cases the causative agents of cysti- The usual manifestations are irritative fbrous thickening of the subepithelial layer tis are the patients own fecal fora. Late and consequent thickening and inelasticity of is a form of endogenous infection. Clinical Features phosphamide cystitis is leiomyosarcoma of Symptoms vary from minor frequency to Typically there is frequency and urgency the bladder. Chronic infammation may lead to prob- suprapubic discomfort or pain in between It can be prevented by diuresis and if nec- lems in the long term. Systemic upset in the form of fever with Chronic Interstitial Cystitis Squamous cell carcinoma may develop in chills and malaise may be present in severe (Hunner’s Ulcer) areas of squamous metaplasia in long-stand- cases accompanying bacteremia. It is a form of chronic abacterial Diagnosis cystitis, practically confned to women. Treatment The midstream specimen of urine is sent for Tis may be a form of autoimmune dis- If infection persists despite adequate treat- microscopy and culture. Tere is nonspecifc chronic infammation daily, cotrimoxazole 1 tab twice daily) to afecting mainly the submucous and muscu- suppress multiplication of bacteria in the Treatment lar layers of the bladder wall which is infl- bladder. Tis should be commenced forthwith and trated with small round cells, fbrotic and Tis regime should be continued for 6 – modifed if necessary, when the bacteriologi- scarred. The patient is urged to drink plenty of der capacity to about 100ml or less, so that fuids and alkalinizing agents such as sodium intense pain is felt when the bladder distends. Cystoscopy reveals characteristic ulcers Cystitis may also be due to trauma chemicals, If the initial course of antibiotics produces (Hunner’s ulcers) in the vault of the bladder toxic drugs, irradiation or viruses and related resolution of symptoms, the midstream urine but it may be absent. Although pus cells may be present in the at 3 months to ensure that infection has been urine there are no organisms on standard eradicated. Steroids-The dramatic response to genitourinary tuberculosis and other irrita- to measure the postvoid residual volume of steroids in some cases have suggested tive lesions like calculi or tumors. The contracted Treatment is empirical but a combination atode, Schistosoma hematobium, through the bladder may require augmentation cysto- of trimethoprim and sulphonamide may be cutaneous route, while taking bath in infected plasty. Tuberculous Cystitis Pathology Tuberculosis of the bladder is virtually always The life cycle of S. The Normally glands are not found in the bladder kidney, it is carried in the stream of urine to intermediate host – fresh water snail. The cercariae (fork tailed larval form) mation, small islands of epithelium become released from the snail swim freely in fresh buried and form minute cysts flled with clear Pathology water, pierce the skin of man and ultimately lay fuid, most abundant over the trigone. Tis is The earliest involvement of the bladder is their ova in venules in the bladder and ureters. Of course, cystitis cystica as Superfcial tuberculous ulcers then spread calcifcation, causing contraction of the blad- such is completely a benign condition. Encrusted cystitis results from infection of the Squamous cell carcinoma of bladder is a bladder by urea splitting organisms, particu- Clinical Features common sequel to bladder Schistosomiasis. Clinical features encrusted cystitis) and promote the deposition The urine shows many pus cells but is ster- The earlier stages of the infestation go unnoticed of phosphatic material on the bladder wall. The treatment is by antibiotics and attempt- Treatment ing to acidify urine which is usually resisted by Treatment should ideally be given in con- diagnosis the ammonia produced by the proteus. A microscopic examination of urine will The end result is usually a small con- ence in dealing with tuberculosis. Cystoscopy may show sandy patches of It is associated with chronic cystitis of removed. The surround- and the bladder shrink’s until it may have a Treatment ing mucosa is edematous, hyperemic and small capacity. Bladder sis consists of a single dose of praziquantel, Histologically, the plaques are made augmentation may be done either by ile- which for safety may be repeated afer a up of large foamy macrophages with occa- ocystoplasty or cecocystoplasty. In addition mineralized the bladder is augmented with a segment of formed by light diathermy coagulation. Secondary neoplasms Grading contraction and clinically manifested by fre- • From the kidneys-papilloma and Tere are three Grades G1, G2 and G3. G2 = moderately diferentiated The common causes are: • From the prostate cancers and G3 = poorly diferentiated 1. T = Primary tumor • Cystoscopy Bladder cancer is more common in males Ta = Noninvasive papillary carcinoma • Cystography and usually occurs afer the age of 50. Augmentation of bladder capacity by rubber industry are more susceptible to half). Smoking increases the risk of developing T4a = Tumor invades prostate or uterus Classifications bladder carcinoma. Pelvic irradiation T4b = Tumor invades pelvic wall or abdom- percent of the bladder tumors originating 5. Chronic cystitis – Tis may lead to squa- N = Metastasis in a single lymph node 1 – Adenoma mous cell metaplasia leading and squa- 2cm or less in greatest dimension. Squamous cell carcinoma following Like cancer anywhere bladder cancer may than 5cm in greatest dimension. Connective tissue (Mesenchymal) tumors appear entirely normal or as fat plaques M = No distant metastasis. Clinical features • Partial cystectomy (partial bladder resec- • Painless hematuria (95%) is the most tion) can be done for localized lesions sit- Prognosis common symptom, dysuria or frequency uated away from ureteral orifces and the i. Fixed tumors and metastasis-Median • Abdominal examination is negative unless fxed tumors (T4a and T4b). Surgery Urinary incontinence is defned as the invol- Investigations untary loss of urine.

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